5 441 Historiek 14 12 West India Trade

West India Trade - The Slave Trade.

The group’s interest in the West India trade was substantial, having been built upon the long experience of Anthony Calvert, and Thomas King, two seamen who knew the intricacies of the slave trade intimately, who were able to command, and supervise, a trusted team of ships Master’s. By providing a reliable service for their early customers, and business associates, based on their good reputation, it enabled them to further establish their name in the London shipping world.

After Calvert became a partner of William Camden, the partnership was set to go from strength to strength, later allowing Thomas King to join them to form the full partnership of Camden, Calvert & King, in the 1780s. The stage was then set for them to further establish their combined ‘local’ networks in Wapping, and diversify their ‘global’ operations. This was greatly assisted by the patronage that the group received from the Curtis family, who were major government contractors. As the year’s progressed the partner’s expanded their horizons to include many diverse operations on a global scale, but essentially one which was still centred on a ‘core’ business of shipping, and victualling. Through the impressive connections provided to them by the group’s associates, and partner’s Sir William Curtis, Peter Thellusson, George Lear, and Thomas Morton, the group became a force to be reckoned with in London merchant circles, and were by these time able to offer shipping services to both the private, and public sectors through their many close connections with the chartered companies. They were also well-placed to use their entrepreneurial skills when other opportunities were presented to them, particularly at times of national crisis, or war, when the demand for shipping and provisioning was at its greatest.

Conclusion.
To summarise the operations of Camden, Calvert & King, we have to consider that their ‘core’ business of shipping, was based around the business of victualling. Here they were fortunate to receive the patronage of the Curtis family of Wapping, who was not only well established government contractors, but a merchant’s of some experience, and vision, especially in respect to the development of new markets. Sir William Curtis, the first Baronet, expanded upon his father Joseph’s legacy, and further expanded the family’s core operations and influence, which in turn was passed on to Sir William’s son the second Baronet. The political and social influence of the Curtis family also enabled them to be at the centre of many opportunities of the time, which they used to further enhance their core business of victualling.

This resulted in them requiring the assistance of sub-contractors such as Camden, Calvert & King. However, the choice of sub-contractors was of great importance to the Curtis family, and it was essential for them to have trusted business associates that would help them fulfil their contractual obligations expediently. This is why they were careful to use their intimate knowledge of reliable local groups that had the necessary network of trusted international contacts, before they made their final choice of business partner’s.

The choice of Camden, Calvert & King, as sub-contractors acting for the Curtis group, may well have been influenced by the firms experience in the West India trade, plus their ‘network’ of local Wapping connections. The business partnership of William Camden and George Lear in a local sugar refinery was an important contributory factor here, which may have influenced the Curtis decision. Although Anthony Calvert was already a well respected, and substantial shipowner who had experience in providing vessels to meet both private and public sector demand. This would have no doubt interested Curtis, and some of his business partners. Later, it would become extremely useful, particularly in respect of supplying the garrisons at Gibraltar, Jamaica, and elsewhere in the West Indies. It is the author’s belief that the initial contact between Curtis and the ‘partner’s’ came about through the auspices of William Camden, whose family were landowners, engaged in London sugar refining for many years. The various early business connections between William & John Camden, Sir William Curtis, George Lear and Peter Thellusson, in sugar refining, and their world’s of insurance and finance, does seem to confirm that this was the case.

The Curtis family was also responsible for provisioning some naval bases in Britain, as well as being involved with other overseas government contracts.

This would have been critical factor, if a ship was required to fulfil a coastal voyage at short notice. Here Calvert’s many connections would have provided access to shipping if, and when, required, as was sometimes the case in an emergency.

Through Camden, Calvert & King’s, involvement in the West Indies trade, a mutually beneficial arrangement was also provided to both Curtis, and the Oswald merchant group through the Huguenot connections of Peter Thellusson. Thellusson was a plantation owner, who supplied goods to the main government ‘contractors’, both overseas, and in Britain, so it was possible for him and his partner’s to ship victuals, and obtain a cargo for the homeward bound voyage through Calvert’s contacts in the West Indies. This would not disrupt any of Camden, Calvert & King’s, other ships that were engaged in the more conventional ‘triangular trade’, but rather enhance it, as some of these ships would be in the West Indies Ports available to load with return cargoes, if and when required, due to the volume of business that the ‘partner’s’ maintained.

The partner’s East Indies involvement has not been fully researched by the author to date, but what is clearly evident is that the partners provided ‘armed escorts’ for East Indies convoys, in addition to shipping stores, and other trading goods, and possibly troops, to the Indian sub-continent. They also provided ‘extra’ ships to the EICo whenever required, as well as providing management services for ships, and freight, in London. Anthony Calvert’s family and business relationship to Thomas Morton, the Secretary of the East India Company, does also suggest that there might be more to investigate, as Morton was an important man in his own right. He was also responsible for the sale of East Indiamen that had come to the end of their service with the Company, which were then ‘sold off’ to the West India merchants, which does raise questions over whether Morton and Calvert had any dealings in this respect. At this stage in the author’s early investigations, there are indications that some of the vessels that Calvert & Co used, had originally operated in the service of the EICo, but further verification is still required before any definite pattern can be identified. Camden. Calvert & King’s many other trading connections would have proved useful for the East Indies trade, firstly, in the ‘local’ context, by being able to sell Indian goods in London on behalf of British merchants in India, and secondly, ‘globally’, by exporting British goods to Asia.

The partner’s involvement in the East Indies trade also allowed them to enter into more speculative ventures, such as ‘privateering’, or the option of operating ‘country ships’ from India, but this area does require further research. Certainly Asian markets interested Curtis, and the partners, and they were involved in importing tea from China, as well as trying to develop the Nootka fur-trade with the Chinese at Canton, where their ‘network’ had numerous contacts. Developing new markets in the Pacific was undoubtedly part of the reason for the group’s participation in convict transportation.

With news of potential whale resources reaching Britain following on from Captain Cook’s voyages of discovery, merchants sought ways of penetrating these potential new markets. This was why the group had an interest in the development of the Southern Whale Fishery. This was something that Sir William Curtis was certainly interested in, especially considering his early investment in Greenland Whaling. And his foray into Nootka fur-trading. The group’s involvement with Convict transportation through the contracts for the Second and Third Fleets, was viewed by them as an opportunity to seek a potential market for future ‘localized’ victualling of whaling stations, by operating from local bases in Australia, or elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific region.

Investment in London’s infrastructure, particularly the Docks, was something that Curtis, and Camden, Calvert & King, were all involved in. They also invested in numerous commercial properties, and were assigned mortgages in and around Wapping, the base of their operations. As previously mentioned Thomas King and Anthony Calvert were involved in some property and land speculation in the then developing areas of Hackney, and Edmonton, North London, as was Sir William Curtis and some of his other associates. The diversity of the partnership’s business enterprises was in a way a safeguard against potential risk. In the case of profit, high capital outlay and risk was exponentially offset by potentially high returns. So financing ventures against collateral was viewed from the perspective of reducing overall risk, in return for a share of potential profits, but it was also another way in which capital assets could be accumulated, an example of this being when an assignment of a mortgage was made to the partner’s in return for a loan taken against property, or when shares in ships were sold to one, or other joint-owners, or a close associate. Thomas King also owned a ‘counting house’ in the prestigious city development at the Crescent, Minories, where the partnership of Camden, Calvert & King based their operations from the 1780s.

The prime reason for the group’s success was that it was at the centre of an ‘official’ victualling network which provided the navy with all its requirements, but one that also allowed sub-contractors great potential too.

Having an extensive network of contacts both in Britain, Europe and elsewhere around the world resulted in many opportunities for trade and potential profit. By meeting the contractual demands of their patron who required certain routes/voyages and business activities to become common place, it also allowed the group greater scope for strategic planning of their business operations, and the opportunity to engage in other trade. Goods such as coffee, sugar and tea, which had been initially expensive and therefore out of reach of most people, were becoming affordable in Britain, resulting in an increased demand. Other goods, such as porcelain from China, and silks and cottons from the East Indies were another factor for merchant consideration. Here Camden & Co were well placed because of their already established, regular shipping business.

The partnership’s extensive network of business contacts provided the group with an unrivalled advantage in the competitive world of international trade.

It also placed them in an excellent position to act when an opportunity presented itself. It was however the group’s connection to the Woodford, Thellusson, and Curtis families vast contracting experience which was really critical to the partnerships ultimate success. It was also the group’s passport to many other well established political networks.

Camden, Calvert & King was a firm that received political patronage through many of their close business associates, a paramount factor for success in the victualling business. Here they were well placed through their connection to the Curtis family of Wapping. Major networks were also available to this group, through the important connections provided to them by Thomas Morton, George Lear and Peter Thellusson. These men were not only gateways to further lucrative business with the East India Company, and the banking and insurance worlds, but also provided the group with access to other ‘close-knit’ ethnic communities, then resident in the maritime ‘enclave’ of Wapping. An area, which in effect existed to fulfil the provisioning, demands of the navy.

It is important for further studies to be made of merchant ‘social’ groups, not only for us to better understand more of the day-to-day operations of merchants, but for us to better understand what effect they had on the formation of many of our social institutions, as well as how this may have influenced attitudes to British culture. Areas such a Wapping in London played an immensely important role in providing the British state with all the materials it required to achieve her naval victories, expand world trade, and forge the British Empire. There is therefore a case for a more detailed study of the area to be made, which would not only further enhance our knowledge of groups such as Camden, Calvert & King, but improve our overall understanding of British maritime history and mercantile endeavour, and illustrate just how critical these merchant ‘networks of opportunity’ really were for the outcome of British history.

Other important lessons might also be learnt here too; on how far eighteenth century politics, patronage, and profit played a part on the production of cultural values, and social ideals in twenty-first century Britain. These could then be compared and contrasted carefully, to consider if some might still be of immeasurable value even in these modern times.

The author will now focus more closely on the group’s slave trading activities, and their many connections in the East and West Indies trades. Some consideration will also be made over how some of these connections may have led to other opportunities becoming available to the group, such as theirinvolvement in the government contracts for provisioning the overseas garrisons based at Jamaica and Gibraltar, and how this may have led to them being considered as a suitable contractor for other government ‘contracts’, such as the Second and Third Fleets to New South Wales, in 1790 & 1791.

Shipping:
Trade with northern European countries would have been an important requirement for any company operating in the West Indies trade during the eighteenth century, for trading goods to exchange for slaves on the West African coast. The partnership’s connection with the Thornton’s the prominent Baltic merchants and bankers, through the Thellusson and Cornwall family connections, would have however greatly assisted the partnership in this respect. The partner’s may have used this connection to acquire trading goods, at the same time as helping their associates fulfil some of their contracts for naval stores, such as timber.

Camden, Calvert & King were to become the ‘premier’ London based firm involved in the slave trade in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and first part of the nineteenth century, although it would be fair to say that this must be viewed in the context of the times, as just part of the West Indies trade150. This involvement should also be viewed from another perspective, as in part, fulfilment of their London based ‘core’ shipping and provisioning operations, based in Wapping.

Although it would be impossible to estimate what profits Camden, Calvert & Co actually made from their slave trading activities at this time, due to the difficulty of predicting commodity prices, and the author’s present access to overseas shipping returns. One can gauge some idea of the volume of the voyages that the group’s vessels made (See: Appendix). On the basis that the profit margin on successful voyages was 10 – 15%, it seems likely that Camden, Calvert & King did well out of this branch of their business. In Thomas King’s evidence before the House of Commons in 1789 he suggested that all the slave voyages that he had commanded were profitable, is also worth some consideration. This perhaps is the reason why they were at the top of Klein’s ‘league table’ of London slavers. When one considers that they were responsible for seventy-seven slave ship voyages, mostly between 1781 and 1808, carrying a total of in excess of 22,000 slaves from West Africa to Jamaica (65%), Guiana’s (12%), plus 14% to other Caribbean parts, with the remaining 9% disembarking elsewhere, we can begin to understand the magnitude of their operations.

The group’s slave trading profits, taken together with profits from their other diverse operations, such as victualling British dockyards, and overseas garrisons, convict transportation, whaling, and the East Indies trade, quite apart from anything else, allows some impression of the group, and the scale of their operations, plus their potential for making money. London’s part in the slave trade is still under-researched but some idea of the total volume of vessels engaged in the trade from its beginnings in the 1640s, can be gauged from table (fig.3) printed below. The following table (fig. 4), shows some of Anthony Calvert’s joint ventures, which indicates that the group were consistently active over a long period of time, right up until British Abolition in 1807

The slave trading operations of Camden, Calvert & King should however be viewed in context, as just being just part of the groups overall operations. Trading with northern Europe and the East Indies would have supplied them with trading goods to enter into the African trade, but this was not their sole aim. That was instead to utilize their shipping prowess to good effect. By being part of a much larger and wider, victualling network they were able to ensure full cargoes for their ships outward bound, as well as for homeward bound voyage, maximizing the potential for profit.

In his capacity has a Director of the African Committee, Calvert’s employed Richard Miles as a ‘writer’ at Cape Coast Castle, on the West African coast. Miles was a merchant who was later became London based, and in a relatively short space of time, became very prominent in his own right, by continuing trading in slaves. He was also a resident of a property adjoining the prestigious Crescent, in the Minories, in the City of London, where Camden, Calvert & King were based. There may have been some ill feeling between Miles and Calvert though, as Anthony Calvert and William Collow at one time were instrumental in remonstrating, and then presenting a petition for his removal as Governor of Cape Coast Castle. The pair rather hypocritically accusing him of trading on his own account with American ships Masters. Calvert’s aim was possibly to limit agents such as Miles from the competition along the coast, and ensure that a supply of slaves was available for collection by the partner’s ships when they arrived, thereby reducing undue waiting time.

The Huguenot connections of Thellusson also raise some question over the possibility of his involvement in the slaving ventures of William Collow.

Some Huguenot plantation owners in the French West Indies did provide Thellusson with customers for his banking business, and were also part of the group’s network of associations. It is interesting to note that William Collow an Africa Committee member, who was well known to Calvert & Co, also had a connection to France. As Collow was running some of his slaving voyages from Le Havre, it is not inconceivable to think that Thelluson may have had a hand in them through his connection to Calvert, who sat on the same committee as Collow, particularly in respect of insurance159. Thellusson was part of the wider Huguenot Diaspora, and was therefore well placed to offer a number of important services, such as finance, insurance, or shipping through his wide international network.

Connections to the main government contractors and provisioning ‘networks’ for the West Indies was an important factor for any West India merchant, and was made possible for Camden, Calvert & King, through their association with George Wombwell, Durand and Richardson , who were all either connected to Trinity House, or the EICo. The victualling of ‘garrisons’ and colonial outposts was another part of our group’s activity through their close connection with the firm Fonnereau & Burrell, the main contractors for Gibraltar, and part of the Thellusson Huguenot network. Being connected to the Oswald group, and the Hibbert’s in Jamaica, also allowed our group good access to intelligence on ship movements, plus knowledge of the availability, and prices, of local produce in this area, which was another factor which allowed the group to remain competitive. Additionally, they were able to receive news of any potential new business, such as ‘local’ ship hire, or inter-island trading, which they could engage in. The Hibbert family was wellrepresented in Jamaican plantation society, and as previously mentioned, had family connections to the Thellusson’s, who had plantation interests in Tobago and Grenada. These factors ensured the group excellent local representation throughout the Caribbean.

Sir John Boyd, the son of Augustus Boyd, who had been recommended for membership to Trinity House by Anthony Calvert was another important connection for Camden, Calvert & King, and was part of the important Oswald group merchant ‘network’. Boyd was later to become involved with the Foundling Hospital, as did Thomas King. More importantly for Camden & Co, Boyd had the government contract to supply the West Indies Station. Some supplies were shipped from Ireland where his family owned farms. Here Camden, Calvert & King assisted Boyd and his associates by shipping the supplies to the Jamaica garrison on their ships.

However, it was Camden, Calvert & King’s involvement in the slave trade that made the greatest demand on them for shipping. Herbert Klein identified this group has being the major London slave traders of the eighteenth century in his 1978 Study. But according to the Lloyds Register of Shipping, Anthony Calvert was operating in the Slave Trade from 1762 – 1809, possibly slightly earlier. King from around the same time, even though he is only recorded as participating from 1783 – 1807, in the Transatlantic Slave Trade Dataset, which is now being revised .The author’s research indicates that King was operating from the early 1760s, with Calvert, and possibly later with other partners in the Cuban trade, after Calvert’s death. William Camden appears to have been involved in the slave trade from around 1764, again possibly slightly earlier, up until his death in 1796, although his name does appear after this in the partnerships name.

The group may have operated after British abolition in 1807, via their networks in America. Although Calvert died in 1809, King was still trading in slaves up until his death in 1824. Also the figures taken into account from data taken from the Transatlantic Dataset, exclude any other ships that the group may have operated in more llocalised trade in other geographic regions, such as the East Indies slave trade to East Africa, or the South American slave trade operating from Cuba, which continued well on after British abolition in 1807.

One might also want to consider the groups involvement in the transportation of convicts to Australia, in the context of trading in human cargoes. According to Lloyds Register of Shipping, William Camden’s first recorded joint slaving investment was to Martinico with the voyage of the ship New Blessing, in 1764, Master, Anthony Calvert, followed by the Marquis of Granby and the Royal Charlotte, both recorded as making voyages in 1764, where again Anthony Calvert is listed as Master, although this might need some further clarification as three voyages are recorded for this same year (See: Appendix for list of vessels). After this, a yearly pattern was established by the two men until Thomas King joined them in their joint ventures. This was from around the early 1770s. The first recorded voyage that King participated in was the voyage of the Three Good Friends in 1773, bound for St Vincent via Cape Coast Castle, but there is evidence to suggest that Thomas King acted as a Master of slave vessels for Camden & Calvert from the 1760s, before then becoming a shareholder with them. Camden was involved with the following voyages, the Venus (1783) to Barbados (where the Lear family owned and managed plantations), and the Commerce (Thomas Morton, Master, possibly a member of the Morton family that Calvert was related to) to St Vincent (1783), again the Commerce, this time to Carolina (1784), then the Africa (1799) to the Guiana’s with, followed by the Venus (1788) to St Vincent. From 1784 a regular yearly pattern mostly to Jamaica emerges, and then the joint ventures begin in earnest. In fact Anthony Calvert is recorded as being involved in seventy-seven joint slave trading ventures, but may well have been involved in more166. He was certainly regarded as a ‘substantial London shipowner’ at this time.

The group’s involvement in the slave trade still requires further detailed study but suffice to say, that Camden, Calvert & King, had great experience in the trade, commencing from the 1760s, and continuing on until Thomas King’s death in 1824. What should also be seriously considered in the case of this particular group is that many of the same slaves trading vessels were also acting as victuallers, supplying British garrisons, at Jamaica, and elsewhere in the West Indies. The amounts of sugar and rum imported by Camden, Calvert & King, according to the extant shipping returns also indicates that they were meeting a huge demand at home, which would be in keeping with their associates London based victualling contracts, and the sugar refining, and brewing activities of Sir William Curtis, Thomas Morton, William & John Camden, and George Lear, & Co. A further appreciation of the group’s slave trading activities can be gauged from the following data:
goods

Conclusion.

To summarise the operations of Camden, Calvert & King, we have to consider that their ‘core’ business of shipping, was based around the business of victualling. Here they were fortunate to receive the patronage of the Curtis family of Wapping, who was not only well established government contractors, but a merchant’s of some experience, and vision, especially in respect to the development of new markets. Sir William Curtis, the first Baronet, expanded upon his father Joseph’s legacy, and further expanded the family’s core operations and influence, which in turn was passed on to Sir William’s son the second Baronet. The political and social influence of the Curtis family also enabled them to be at the centre of many opportunities of the time, which they used to further enhance their core business of victualling.

The Curtis family was also responsible for provisioning some naval bases in Britain, as well as being involved with other overseas government contracts.

Although Camden, Calvert & King were well connected to the East India Company, at this time, it still monopolized trade in the Pacific, which many merchants resented; favouring a more liberal lassiz-faire approach instead.
With news of potential whale resources reaching Britain following on from Captain Cook’s voyages of discovery, merchants sought ways of penetrating these potential new markets. This was why the group had an interest in the development of the Southern Whale Fishery. This was something that Sir William Curtis was certainly interested in, especially considering his early investment in Greenland Whaling. And his foray into Nootka fur-trading. The group’s involvement with Convict transportation through the contracts for the Second and Third Fleets, was viewed by them as an opportunity to seek a potential market for future ‘localized’ victualling of whaling stations, by operating from local bases in Australia, or elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific region.

The partnership’s extensive network of business contacts provided the group with an unrivalled advantage in the competitive world of international trade.